The two terms "objective" and "subjective" nowadays mean, respectively, "external" and "mental". But these terms in their primary usage in Middle Ages (from Dunes Scotos) have had exactly the opposite of today"s meaning: "objective" has meant "mental;""" and "subjective" has meant "external". These old (and nowadays completely strange) meanings have been current in philosophical literature, especially in Descartes and his contemporaries, e. g. Spinoza and Berkley. This paper tends to argument that the word "objective" must be taken as meaning "mental" in Descartes" philosophy (and other philosophers" up to 19th century), and not to confused with its modern meaning (i. e. "external").

A B S T R A C T Green city is one of the approaches to sustainable development. “green city” is an environmentally friendly city compatible with the concept of sustainable development and can be used for the welfare and security of its inhabitants. Based on the concept of a “green city,” urban managers try to have the least destructive effect on the ecosystems upon which cities rely. Green city is one of the sustainable development approaches that reduce the environmental footprint of cities. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the situation of Mashhad metropolis in terms of the objective characteristics of the green city. In this study, 14 indicators of electricity consumption per capita, green space per capita, population density, water availability, sewage availability, superior public transportation network, urban mass transportation, traffic reduction, annual production waste per capita, carbon monoxide, concentration nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide concentration, particulate matter concentration, and air quality were exerted. To determine the importance of research indicators, the Shannon entropy method, and the status of Mashhad city areas in terms of green city indicators, the VIKOR multi-criteria decision-making method has been applied. The results showed that most areas of Mashhad are average and below average in terms of green city characteristics, and only District 9 is in very good condition (0.636). Also, based on the results of this part of the research, District 5, with the value of VIKOR index of 0.969, is in the last rank in terms of objective characteristics of the green city Extended Abstract Introduction Green city is one of the approaches to sustainable development. A “Green city” is an environmentally friendly city compatible with the concept of sustainable development and can be used for the welfare and security of its inhabitants. Based on the concept of a “green city,” urban managers try to have the least destructive effect on the ecosystems upon which cities rely. Green cities constantly try to manage their environmental effects by reducing waste, increasing recycling, reducing air pollution, increasing population density, developing open urban spaces, and encouraging the development of sustainable local businesses. Green cities were first used to evaluate 30 European cities by the Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) in 2009 with the financial support of Siemens and the aim of reducing the environmental effects of human activities in cities. In that study, eight indices of carbon dioxide, energy, construction, transportation, water, recycling and land use, air quality, and environmental governance were used. Later, the Economist Intelligence Unit, with the financial support of Siemens, evaluated the status of the green city index in 17 Latin American cities, 15 African cities, 22 major Asian cities, and 27 cities in United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. In recent years, even some Western Islamic scholars have, in various publications, shown that Islam is an ecological religion. In Iran, the issue of protecting the environment has not received much attention regardless of its rich cultural and religious background and its confirmation in Article 50 of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran. Mashhad is the second metropolis of Iran, located in North-East of Iran, and is one of the counties of Khorasan Razavi Province. According to the 2016 Iranian Population and Housing Census, its population was 3057679 people (The Vice-Presidency of Planning and Development of Mashhad Municipality). In Mashhad, due to several reasons including the presence of Imam Reza Shrine (PBUH) and arrival of millions of pilgrims per year, population growth, increased garbage production (production of 896534 tons of garbage in 2016 (The Vice-Presidency of Planning and Development of Mashhad Municipality), air pollution (increased number of unhealthy days from 46 days per year in 2015 to 88 days in 2016 for sensitive groups and 4 days of unhealthy air for all groups in 2016 (Center for Monitoring Environmental Pollutants of Mashhad Municipality) the 2025 vision of the city has paid attention to the environment in the form of five general objectives; however, just like the national level, no specific pattern for environmentally-compatible urban development, such as green city, is determined. Analysis of the green city index in Mashhad metropolis can considerably contribute to urban managers and planners in addition to providing a pattern for evaluating the present situation in other cities of Iran and improving the quality of life regardless of the current status of the urban environment in Iranian cities; we can preserve these environments as parts of the natural environment for future generations.   Methodology In terms of its goal, the present study is an applied one; in the study, drawing upon other studies and library sources and considering the conditions of Iran and the metropolis of Mashhad in terms of green city, 14 quantitative indices were exerted. To this end, the required data for the quantitative indices was gathered by library research from the relevant institutions. Next, the weights of quantitative indices were determined using Shannon's entropy. Then, using the VIKOR method of multi-criteria decision-making, the status of various districts of the metropolis of Mashhad in terms of quantitative indices of green city was determined. Finally, the map of the spatial distribution of quantitative indices was drawn using the ARC GIS software package.   Results and discussion In this study, to analyze the status of the metropolis of Mashhad in terms of green city features, 14 quantitative indices were used. Considering the value of the VIKOR index ranges from 0 to 1, various districts of Mashhad can be classified into five categories; very satisfactory, satisfactory, average, unsatisfactory, and very unsatisfactory in terms of quantitative indices of green city. The results of the current situation of Mashhad showed that in terms of objective indicators of the green city, District 9 of Mashhad metropolis with a value of VIKOR index of 0.056 is in first place, and the seventh region with a value of VIKOR index of 0.433 is in second place. Also, based on the results of this part of the research, District 5, with the value of VIKOR index of 0.969, is in the last rank in terms of objective characteristics of the green city.   Conclusion Similarly, the results of studies by Afshar (2011) and Shabani et al. (2017) on Tehran metropolis are indicative of the unsatisfactory situation of Tehran (the biggest metropolis of Iran) in terms of green city features. Comparing the results of the studies by Afshar (2011) and Shabani et al. (2017) with the present study on Mashhad (the second biggest metropolis of Iran) reveals the necessity for a comprehensive plan toward achieving green cities. It should be mentioned that, due to the specific conditions of Mashhad metropolis and availability or unavailability of the required data, the indices used in the present study are somewhat different from the ones used by Afshar (2011) and Shabani et al. (2017).   Funding There is no funding support.   Authors’ Contribution All of the authors approved the content of the manuscript and agreed on all aspects of the work.     Conflict of Interest Authors declared no conflict of interest.   Acknowledgments We are grateful to all the scientific

Introduction Opinions about perception regarding its relation to reality fall into a spectrum in which, at one end, it is believed that our perception is entirely in line with external reality, which is called direct realism or naive realism. At the other end of the spectrum are those who believe there is no correspondence between perception and external reality and are so-called anti-realists. Classical theories of cognitive sciences believe that the perceptual system can guarantee the survival of an organism when it represents external reality as accurately as possible. Nevertheless, some theories like the Interface Theory of Perception belonging to Hoffman et al. believe that our perception has nothing to do with external reality. According to this theory, the direction of evolution in shaping the perceptual system is not a representation of reality but a guarantee of the survival of living beings with the least energy, they show with these assumptions that perception has nothing to do with reality. However, they have neglected the assumption of environmental changes in their model. In our previous study, we modified their model and presented a new one considering environmental changes' assumptions. This research showed that the species perception approximates external reality, with a considerable difference in having a better chance of survival than other species. The present study intends to investigate how well this approximation can be in terms of its proximity to reality to maintain the existing survival. Methods The method used in this research is agent-based modeling. Based on the conceptual model proposed by Hoffman, our model has three types of agents: the truth agent, the simple agent, and the interface agent. Each agents is generated in the desired number at the beginning of the simulation and randomly distributed with a uniform distribution in the simulation environment. Each agent is assigned an initial energy value based on a normal distribution. Each patch of the environment is also assigned a random amount based on a normal distribution function, such as the feed capacity of that patch. Each agent evaluates its neighbor's patches based on its perception function and selects and consumes the most desirable patch resource. Then, at the end of each step, the gain of each agent is calculated based on the following function: Gain=Ux-C Where U (x) is a function of the utility of each agent, which is in accordance with the model proposed by Hoffman et al. as follows: Ux=ae-The cost function or C is also defined as follows: C=celog2q+ckqnb In this modified model, the possibility of changes in the environment is also considered. In case of environmental changes, the species with the interface perception loses the correspondence between its perceptual interface and the environment and makes a mistake in distinguishing the desired and undesirable area., the energy function of the interface agent in step n of the simulation, taking into account the assumption of environmental changes, is calculated as follows: Eninterface=En-1interface+ The investigation conducted in this study is to determine the maximum accuracy that the simple species (species with an approximation of reality) can have in its perception of the environment. The model used in this study is a modified version of the model made by the authors in their previous work that was introduced earlier. Here, instead of assigning a fixed value to the number of perceptual categories for the simple species, the number of these categories changes in each simulation run. The efficiency of each perceptual strategy in these different simple species situations is examined. Results Each combination of different values for different model variables such as cost per bit of information, resource growth rate, desired area boundaries, probability of change of environment, the initial number of factors, and the number of perceptual categories of approximating factors is repeated 20 times and the average of these repetitions, as a result of the simulation with those specific settings is reported. The main result of the simulation is demonstrated in the following figure, which shows the performance of each species concerning different numbers of simple agents' perceptual categories. Figure 1. The final population of different species concerning simple agent's different precision of perception The results show the efficiency of different perceptual strategies concerning changes in the number of perceptual categories of the approximate strategy, the probability of environmental changes, the cost per bit of information, and the growth rate of food resources. For all these parameters and in almost all parametric spaces, the simple strategy, with an accuracy of 40% or less than the truth strategy’s accuracy, shows better performance than both the interface and the truth strategy. Another part of the results reveals the performance of each species for different values of variables of the probability of environmental changes and cost per bit of information. The results show that in almost the entire parametric space, the approximating species perform better than the other species in both cases. Thus, it can be argued that in environments with extended periods of stability or in isolation from the general environment, perceptual interface evolvement and severe disconnection between perception and reality can be possible. However, in dynamic environments, even with relatively low dynamics, survival requires that the perception system provide an approximation of reality. The results also show that with increasing approximation accuracy in the simple species (those with an approximation of reality), even up to 50% of the realistic species, if the cost per bit of information is low, the simple species still performs significantly better than the species with the interface and at high values of cost per bit of information in some parts of the parametric space still performs better than the interface type. In the other parts of the parametric space, it works at least as well as the interface type. Conclusion According to the present study’s findings, evolutionary mechanisms allow the perceptual apparatus to be accurate, to about half the accuracy of an accurate realistic perceptual apparatus. Indeed, the obtained results show that not only does evolution not lead to the formation of perceptual systems unrelated to reality, but it also allows for a much more accurate approximation of perception of reality to a considerable extent. So we as evolved beings can hope that what we perceive is reasonably similar to what exists in the real world. Nevertheless, we should keep in mind that the circumstances under which the natural selection mechanism achieves such a level of accuracy in perception may also depend on other factors. For future studies in this area, the first step is to find a ground-based criterion to examine the accuracy of perception, which is reasonably easy to calculate and measure, and applicable in a variety of cases. In the next step, finding experimental contexts to test the hypotheses is very helpful. Seemingly, this research should pay much attention to environmental and ecological features and study the perceptual system of native ecosystems in a range of ecosystems with different levels of diversity and history of change. Ethical considerations Compliance with ethical guidelines This study is based on mathematical models and their simulations and does not use experimental data from human or animal studies. So, no subject requires compliance with the code of ethics. Authors' contributions The authors have equal contributions to forming the main idea of this study. Shahriar Gharibzadeh supervised the research. Arman Rezayati did modeling and simulation and also wrote the paper. Funding No financial support was received from any institution in conducting this study. Acknowledgments The authors did not use anyone else's help in doing this study. Conflict of interest There was no conflict of interest between individuals in this study.

The method of metaphysics: Metaphysics is empirical but depends not, like the sciences, on recondite experience but on close attention to aspects of everyday experience we ordinarily scarcely notice. "Real" is a broader concept than "exists" (which applies only to particulars) and also applies to phenomena, kinds, and laws, which are real, but not, of course, existent entities. But "there are real kinds, laws, etc." doesn't imply that all the kinds and laws we believe are real, are. I call my approach "Innocent Realism" because--though it's certainly not naive--it requires attending to experience, so far as possible, without substantial preconceptions. There is one real world, enormously varied but also integrated. It includes physical stuff, kinds, laws, etc. and, here on earth, a vast array of human artifacts, physical, social, intellectual, and imaginative, all intimately interconnected. All this requires human mindedness (a better word than "mind" because it doesn't suggest that human mentality is an organ like the heart or the liver). Rather, it's a complex congeries of dispositions and abilities: to understand even such a relatively simple thing as what's involved in someone's believing something, we need to take account of the person's dispositions to behavior, verbal and otherwise; to the neurophysiological realizations of these dispositions; and to their connections to the world and to words in the person's linguistic community--this last requiring other people's words-world connection. "Virtual" reality is just one more computer artifact, clever, no doubt, but not metaphysically startling. It's oversold, but this is advertising hype, not serious metaphysics.

Artifacts are ubiquitous and influential in our world, but their nature and existence are controversial. Several theories have been proposed to explain the ontology of artifacts. Drawing on Popper's theory of three worlds, this paper suggests a metaphysics for artifacts along the line of a critical rationalist (CR) approach. This theory distinguishes between three realms of reality: the physical world (World 1), the mental world (World 2), and the world of objective knowledge (World 3). The paper argues that artifacts have different ontological components that correspond to these three realms, and that each component is real and causal. The paper shows how this perspective can account for the intentional and functional aspects of artifacts, as well as their dependence on plans that influence different realms of reality. The paper explains how this pluralistic ontology, compared to the rival theories, enables one to explain the relevant ontological problems of artifacts. The paper also explores how this proposal can lead to a research program encompassing a broader range of technologies, such as social artifacts. In sum, the paper suggests that Popper's three worlds theory provides a rich and comprehensive framework for understanding the metaphysics of artifacts.

The idea that science is objective, or able to achieve objectivity, is in large part responsible for the role that science plays within society. But what is objectivity? The idea of objectivity is ambiguous. This paper distinguishes between three basic forms of objectivity. The first form of objectivity is ontological objectivity: the world as it is in itself does not depend upon what we think about it; it is independent of human thought, language, conceptual activity or experience. The second form of objectivity is the objectivity of truth: truth does not depend upon what we believe or justifiably believe; truth depends upon the way reality itself is. The third form of objectivity is epistemic objectivity: this form of objectivity resides in the scientific method which ensures that subjective factors are excluded, and only epistemically relevant factors play a role in scientific inquiry. The paper considers two problems that arise for the notion of epistemic objectivity: the theory-dependence of observation and the variability of the methods of science. It is argued that the use of shared standard procedures ensures the objectivity of observation despite theory-dependence. It is argued that the variability of methods need not lead to an epistemic relativism about science. The paper concludes with the realist suggestion that the best explanation of the success of the sciences is that the methods employed in the sciences are highly reliable truth-conducive tools of inquiry. The objectivity of the methods of the sciences leads to the objective truth about the objective world.

Kant has attempted to response Hume's objections on the relation of cause and effect. In this regard, most exponents have concentrated on the second analogy and probably on the transcendental deduction; however, the right thing to do is to call attention to the most of components of criticism including the concept of time, metaphysical deduction, transcendental deduction, constitution-making, and especially the second analogy. In response to Hume, Kant has made an attempt to show the synthetic relation of the cause and the caused in the concept of object, and thereby to demonstrate the objective validity of causality. The paper in the first place presents an account and explanation of Kant's view and then deals with the criticism of it.